Fragments of Musonius Rufus

Like the 'works' of Epictetus (a pupil of Musonius) these are from a student's notes or recollections of Musonius. Musonius, like a number of other followers of Greek philosophy in the Rome of his day, was a native Roman, but both taught and wrote in Greek (as did the 2nd century CE Emperor, Marcus Aurelius).

ii. The original title of this chapter is missing (as well as the end), but was something like "humans are born for virtue" or "with a natural inclination toward virtue". That virtue is natural to human beings, and that all human beings are thus capable of happiness, is shown by the fact that all humans are held responsible for their characters and actions, especially by the law. (This is reminiscent of Protagoras' Great Speech in Plato's Protagoras.)

iii. The Stoics treated the natural intellectual and moral equality of men and women as a Socratic tenet (contrast Aristotle). Note that philosophy is by definition the systematic pursuit of virtue: since virtue is just as natural for one sex as for the other, both should engage in philosophy. The last three-quarters of the chapter provides a good survey of the Stoic conception of the different virtues, or rather the different aspects of the 'art of living', which is virtue.

iv. Continues in the same vein as iii. Note however that Musonius does not agree with the Socrates of Plato's Republic, Book V that women and men should pursue the same occupations in life - women learning gymnastics, and men to spin - since their natural physical capacities are held to differ, even though they are equally inclined to virtue, which is the same for both. Again, philosophy is said to be training for moral excellence (kalokagathia p49, translated "nobility of character"). Contrast Epictetus' rather dismissive-sounding remarks about women at Handbook 40.

xii. The title is actually On Sex, and the first sentence just says that over-indulgence in sex is quite common. Musonius immediately goes on to state the view that sexual virtue consists in only indulging in sexual activity for the purpose of begetting children, even in marriage, and that no extramarital sexual relations are legitimate, even with one's slaves or prostitutes (not the usual view in his day, at least for men).

xiii a-b. The initial sentence in brackets is a summary, perhaps by the author (Musonius' student), and is basically correct. The two parts of the chapter may have originally belonged together. Note the emphasis on equal and reciprocal love in marriage in the first passage, and in the second that the only requirement for a good marriage is an affinity between the partners that will promote this.

xiv. Whether the sage would marry was controversial among ancient philosophers: Musonius follows the usual Stoic view that he or she will do so. Note the stress on the fundamental importance of the home to society ('family values'), and of the natural sociability of human beings (like bees).

xv. Musonius approves of neither abortion nor infanticide, which were not uncommon in antiquity. He refers primarily to the Roman Emperor Augustus' laws against them.

xxi. Wearing the beard was a sign that one was a philosopher: Epictetus declares in the Discourses that he would not shave his even if ordered to do so by the Emperor on pain of death. Musonius permits trimming hair and beard, but not shaving any of it: he is addressing men, but presumably the same rules would apply to hair, including body-hair, of either sex.